NepOOC-M: Bilingual Nepali-English Benchmark and Comparative Analysis of Multimodal Architectures for OOC Detection

Abstract:Out-of-context (OOC) misinformation pairs authentic images with misleading captions to construct false narratives without image manipulation, making detection a problem of multimodal alignment rather than image forensics. Despite the prevalence and consequences of OOC misinformation in Nepal, no public benchmark exists for Nepali. We introduce NepOOC, the first publicly available Nepali-dominant multilingual OOC benchmark, comprising 1,090 image-caption pairs (545 pristine, 545 OOC) annotated across five typologies (fabricated, miscaptioned, temporal mismatch, geographic mismatch, identity mismatch) with inter-annotator agreement kappa = 0.84. Systematic evaluation of five multimodal architectures alongside text-only and image-only baselines reveals that caption semantics appear sufficient for strong performance at the current dataset scale. A text-only mBERT model achieves 94.65+/-0.20% Macro-F1, statistically equivalent to the best multimodal system (ResNet-50+mBERT, 94.65+/-0.20%; McNemar median p = 1.000, 0/5 seeds significant at alpha = 0.05). Image-only models perform near chance (33-50%), while training-size scaling suggests that dataset expansion is a more direct path to progress than architectural sophistication or regional specialisation.

Computation and Language (cs.CL); Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (cs.CV)

I.2.7; I.2.10; I.5.4

arXiv:2608.19212 [cs.CL]

(or arXiv:2608.19212v1 [cs.CL] for this version)

https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2608.19212 Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite

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