Microwave-to-Optical Quantum Transduction of Photons for Quantum Interconnects

arXiv:2509.26349v3 Announce Type: replace Abstract: The quantum transduction, or equivalently quantum frequency conversion, is vital for the realization of, e.g., quantum networks, distributed quantum computing, and quantum repeaters. The microwave-to-optical quantum transduction is of particular interest in the field of superconducting quantum computing, since interconnecting dilution refrigerators is considered inevitable for realizing large-scale quantum computers with fault-tolerance. In this review, we overview recent theoretical and experimental studies on the quantum transduction between microwave and optical photons. We describe a generic theory for the quantum transduction employing the input-output formalism, from which the essential quantities characterizing the transduction, i.e., the expressions for the transduction efficiency, the added noise, and the transduction bandwidth are derived. We review the major transduction methods that have been experimentally demonstrated, focusing on the transduction via the optomechanical effect, the electro-optic effect, the magneto-optic effect, and the atomic ensembles. We also briefly review the recent experimental progress on the quantum transduction from superconducting qubit to optical photon, which is an important step toward the quantum state transfer between distant superconducting qubits interconnected over optical fibers.

Abstract:The quantum transduction, or equivalently quantum frequency conversion, is vital for the realization of, e.g., quantum networks, distributed quantum computing, and quantum repeaters. The microwave-to-optical quantum transduction is of particular interest in the field of superconducting quantum computing, since interconnecting dilution refrigerators is considered inevitable for realizing large-scale quantum computers with fault-tolerance. In this review, we overview recent theoretical and experimental studies on the quantum transduction between microwave and optical photons. We describe a generic theory for the quantum transduction employing the input-output formalism, from which the essential quantities characterizing the transduction, i.e., the expressions for the transduction efficiency, the added noise, and the transduction bandwidth are derived. We review the major transduction methods that have been experimentally demonstrated, focusing on the transduction via the optomechanical effect, the electro-optic effect, the magneto-optic effect, and the atomic ensembles. We also briefly review the recent experimental progress on the quantum transduction from superconducting qubit to optical photon, which is an important step toward the quantum state transfer between distant superconducting qubits interconnected over optical fibers.

22 pages. Invited Review in npj Nanophotonics

Quantum Physics (quant-ph); Mesoscale and Nanoscale Physics (cond-mat.mes-hall); Applied Physics (physics.app-ph); Optics (physics.optics)

arXiv:2509.26349 [quant-ph]

(or arXiv:2509.26349v3 [quant-ph] for this version)

https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2509.26349 Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite

npj Nanophoton. 3 (2026)

https://doi.org/10.1038/s44310-026-00130-8 Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources

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Microwave-to-Optical Quantum Transduction of Photons for Quantum Interconnects

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